[ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]
.If the building fails to meet the target,the developer can be fined, or, in a worst-case scenario, the city canshut down the parking facility.Evaluation of StrategyCost/Revenue ImplicationsRating: Low cost.From the public s perspective, creating andimplementing a mandatory employer TDM program would entail360 Moving Los Angeles: Short-Term Policy Options for Improving Transportationongoing operating costs, including staff to monitor and enforce theprogram.If fines for failing to meet trip-reduction goals were set suf-ficiently high, a region could receive net revenue from the program,though this would represent neither a steady nor a popular revenuestream.Washington State currently spends about $5.5 million everytwo years to assist local jurisdictions and monitor the program.Asanother data point, AQMD spends $800,000 annually to monitor itsprogram, and it collected $1.2 million from January to July 2007 fromemployers choosing to opt out of the trip-reduction component andparticipate in the Air Quality Investment Program instead (Gomezand Thomas, 2007).Short-Term Effectiveness in Reducing CongestionRating: Medium.Mandatory TDM programs could result in atleast a moderate reduction in automotive commute trips and VMT,since such programs typically apply to enough commercial buildingsor large firms to encompass a sizable portion of the overall workingpopulation.Because most commute trips occur during the morningand evening rush hours, this could result in appreciable congestionrelief in the short term.Studies of prior mandatory TDM programs in the L.A.regionoffer some evidence of this strategy s potential effectiveness.Forexample, the Coastal Transportation Corridor ordinance (discussedin greater detail later) required developers in several parts of the cityto implement strategies intended to reduce single-occupant commut-ing, as well as to pay considerable fees for each new evening peak-hour trip generated beyond the specified limit.Blankson and Wachs s(1990) examination of the program determined that the carpool ratefor buildings covered by the ordinance was more than twice that forsimilar buildings in areas not covered by the ordinance.That said, thecarpool share was still rather small (7.4 percent for buildings coveredby the ordinance versus 3.5 percent for other buildings), while the pro-portion of employees who drove alone remained comparable (86.8 per-cent versus 87.9 percent).Another study, by Giuliano, Hwang, and Wachs (1993), examinedthe effects of AQMD s Regulation XV (also discussed in more detailMandatory Transportation Demand Management Programs 361later), which appeared to be more successful than the Coastal Trans-portation Corridor ordinance.The authors found that, after employersin Los Angeles had participated in the program for a year, the AVR (cal-culated as the number of employees arriving at work between 6:00 a.m.and 10:00 a.m.divided by the number of vehicles arriving at the worksite) increased from 1.213 to 1.246 (this translates to a decrease of twocars for every 100 employees).1 Of the 1,110 employment sites reportedin AQMD s database, AVR increased at 69 percent of the sites but fellat 31 percent.Those sites where AVR increased tended to have lowerstarting AVRs to begin with; they also tended to offer more employeeincentives, which appeared to be more effective than disincentives.Thegreatest change in mode share came from increases in carpooling (asdistinct from vanpooling).For a smaller number of employers that hadbeen participating for two years when the evaluation was conducted,the AVR continued to increase, from 1.258 after the first year to 1.304in the second (an additional reduction of about three cars per 100employees), and the share of drive-alone commuting also continuedto decline (from 69.7 percent in the first year to 65.4 percent in thesecond).Long-Term Effectiveness in Reducing CongestionRating: Low.Focusing just on commuter trips, mandatorybuilding- or employer-based TDM programs should continue tobe effective in the long term, since ongoing participation would berequired.(It should be noted, of course, that effectiveness also dependson the consistency and strictness of enforcement, as employers or build-ing managers will be less likely to comply if they feel that infractionswill not be punished.) For example, the State of Washington reviews itsoverall progress every two years.The 2005 report found that the CTRhad reduced vehicle trips by 20,000 per day, that the percentage ofdrive-alone commuters at CTR work sites had declined from 70.8 per-1The total number of employees showing up at work plus the total number of cars theycollectively drive, divided by AVR, is 1.245.The inverse of employees per car is cars peremployee (1/1.213 = 0.824, 1/1.245 = 0.803).Subtracting 80.3 from 82.4 results in a decreaseof two cars per 100 employees.362 Moving Los Angeles: Short-Term Policy Options for Improving Transportationcent in 1993 to 65.7 percent in 2005, and that delays during the morn-ing peak hours had been reduced by 11.6 percent [ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]