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.Only Calais remainedof England s continental possessions.No one could be quite sure that the war, which by then had lasted 116years, was over.There was no signed accord, and French watches con-tinued to survey the horizon for the English.England retained Calaisuntil 1553 and continued to use the title  king of France until the earlynineteenth century.As if history were to repeat itself, in 1453 on theother side of the channel, Henry VI lost his mind and a civil war in Eng-land soon followed.NOTES1.Historiens et chroniqueurs du moyen age: Robert de Clari, Villehardouin,Joinville, Froissart, Commynes, ed.Albert Pauphilet (Bibliothèque de la Pléiade)(Paris: Gallimard, 1952), p.353.2.Eugène Déprez, Les préliminaires de la guerre de cent ans: La papauté, laFrance et l Angleterre (1328 1342) (Paris: Fontemoing, 1902), p.36.3.Déprez, Préliminaires, p.219.4.Charles de Beaurepaire,  Complainte sur la bataille de Poitiers,Bibliothèque de l Ecole des Chartes, sér.2, 12 (1851), p.259.5.Ibid., p.260.6.Chronique de Jean le Bel, ed.Jules Viard and Eugène Déprez, vol.2 (Paris:Champion, 1977), p.253.7.The Chronicle of Jean de Venette, trans.Jean Birdsall, ed.Richard A.Newhall (New York: Columbia University Press, 1953), p.96.8.Richard A.Jackson, ed., Ordines Coronationis Franciae: Tests and Ordinesfor the Coronation of Frankish and French Kings and Queens in the Middle Ages(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 2000), p.455.9.Jean Juvenal des Ursins cited by Ian Heath, Armies of the Middle Ages: Or-ganisation, Tactics, Dress and Weapons, vol.1 (Goring-by-Sea: Wargames Re-search Group, 1982), p.71.10.Régine Pernoud, Joan of Arc: By Herself and Her Witnesses, trans.EdwardHyams (New York: Stein & Day, 1966), p.151.CHAPTER 1BACKGROUNDCAUSES OFTHE HUNDREDYEARS WARTHE CONFISCATION OF AQUITAINEThe Hundred Years War began in the early fourteenth century, whenthere was as yet nothing inevitable about the boundaries of present-dayEngland and France.In fact, the war itself can be seen as the graduallyunfolding history of establishing frontiers.Astonishingly, the map ofFrance in the late twelfth century shows that almost half of modernFrance belonged to England.These vast continental holdings of England,known as the Angevin Empire, extended from the English Channel tothe Pyrenees mountains.The possession by English kings of inheritancesin France originated with William the Conqueror, a Frenchman and dukeof Normandy, whose successful conquest of England (Hastings, 1066)made him at once an English king and a French duke.When Henry IIPlantagenet, also French by birth, ascended the English throne in 1154,further inheritances and acquisitions brought Plantagenet lands in Franceto their greatest extent.With the origins of the Plantagenet dynastysolidly French, the principal issue of the Hundred Years War was to de-termine how the continental lands claimed by England would ultimatelybe distributed.The French challenge to English rule on the Continenttook more than a century of bloodshed to resolve.No single event can be held responsible for causing the Hundred YearsWar.The ingredients which together form the deep-seated causes of war2 JOAN OF ARC AND THE HUNDRED YEARS WARwere the result of evolving political, economic, social, and ideologicalcircumstances.It is more or less by convention that historians date thebeginning of the Hundred Years War to 1337.In that year Philip VI, kingof France, confiscated the duchy of Aquitaine (also Guyenne) from itsEnglish duke, Edward III, king of England.That a contested Aquitainewas the spark that started the war is not surprising.By 1337 Aquitainewas the main remnant of England s possessions in France.The disinte-gration of the ancient Angevin Empire had come about through the cen-tralizing tendencies of the French king Philip II Augustus (1165 1223).Land losses by Henry II s heirs culminated in the signing of the Treaty ofParis in 1259.The agreement forced Henry III, who desired peace butalso acknowledged the current balance of power, to concede thoseprovinces over which he had effectively lost control, that is, the bulk ofthe family heritage, or Angevin Empire.Thus, the English king HenryIII, when he acknowledged Louis IX s sovereignty over Normandy,Anjou, Maine, Touraine, and Poitou, signed away his claims to theselands.Henry retained Aquitaine but the price paid was an oath of liegehomage [ Pobierz caÅ‚ość w formacie PDF ]